An approximate 2.6 billion people do not have access to basic sanitation facilities such as latrines, and places with the lowest sanitation coverage include South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa where two-thirds of the population lack access to improved facilities (WHO/UNICEF 2006). Although open defecation persists in the developing world (an approximate figure of 1.1 billion, a decline of 168 million from 1990), structures that are in place in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, are poorly built and contain serious health risks.
On a project visit to a secondary school in Masindi District, Uganda (approximately
80km from Murchison Falls National Park), there stood two communal latrines behind
the school, one for boys and one for girls, each enclosed with metal sheets held up by
tall tree branches. Students in nearby schools do not always have the luxury of gender-
separated facilities let alone a facility to use.
Pit latrines in Uganda and other African countries are often communally designed,
made of brick or mud, and enclosed with corrugated tin or thatched roofing. A typical
pit latrine lasts between 3-5 years with an estimated cost of $250 to $1,500, and more
expensive for longer lasting designs, a struggle for most schools in rural areas to afford.
Notwithstanding the especially unfavorable conditions for girls during menstruation, the
design, construct, and maintenance of the facilities have critical implications for hygiene
and sanitation.
Like the majority of pit latrines in primary and secondary schools in the rural areas
of Uganda and in other parts of Africa, the secondary school in Masindi District that
I visited was engulfed with sprayed urine, feces, flies, and recently hatched larva—a
breeding ground for faecal pathogens causing conditions ranging from Hepatitis A to
Protozoal Amoebiasis and Ecoli.
Such conditions are not only due to a lack of commitment to cleaning, however. Poorly
built latrines can lead to an increase in flies, which lay eggs in feces spreading disease.
If the base of a latrine facility is unstable or loosely fixed onto the surface, for instance,
the cement flooring will crack, making the environment increasingly favorable for
hookworm transmission and larvae. In addition, if the hole is not constructed large
enough, as in the latrine shown above, urine will splash onto the floor and walls, making
it conducive for flies, bacteria, and fungi.
Engineers often recommend a round, conical design with a set of dimensions (180mm in
diameter tapering to 100mm x 380mm long) and ‘squatting slabs’ for users to properly
position themselves over the drop hole. A ventilation pipe also reduces the reproduction
of flies by controlling odorous gases emanating from within the pit, a lure to female
flies searching for a place to lay eggs. If a vent pipe is badly designed, however, e.g.
does not reach far enough into the pit to draw in the gases, the pipe will be ineffective—
a common glitch according to Francis Musinguzi, a water resources engineer with
a US-based NGO Africare in Kampala, Uganda’s capital and most populace city.
The location of a pit and disposal of wastes are other challenges that if overlooked can
have serious health consequences. Although there are several different degrees of pit latrines—some more expensive, longer lasting, and greater quality than others—if a pit is
constructed near a water source or disposal of wastes is not properly planned, the risk for
faecal contamination is high.
Promising Developments
Two cost-effective toilet options adaptable for rural and urban settings in developing
contexts might solve the sanitation challenges of latrines, yet sustainability might be in
question:
The ‘ArborLoo,’ a mobile composting toilet is a cost-effective (US$7-20), ecological
option being absorbed by African countries including Ethiopia in response to their
sanitation challenges. Designed by Zimbabwean Peter Morgan, the simple invention that
can last up to one year and easily moved to a nearby location, includes a shallow compost
pit 1.0-1.5m deep, a concrete slab placed over the opening, and dry leaves at the bottom
(a structure can be placed on top for privacy). After each use, soil and wood ash should
be added to reduce odor, flies, and encourage composting. Once full, the slab is removed,
topsoil is added, and a fruit tree or other crop can be planted.
Another invention designed especially to work in urban developing areas is the ‘Peepoo,’
a biodegradable, odor-free toilet bag (measuring 14×38 centimeters) to be used once and
easily disposed. In collaboration with the Swedish University of Agricultural Science
(SLU) and Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Anders Wilhelmson spearheaded
the Peepoo project in 2005 in Stockholm, Sweden with the aim to provide universal
access ‘to dignified and hygienic sanitation.’ The Peepoo bag is coated with urea, a non-
hazardous fertilizer that speeds up the hygienisation process by deactivating pathogens
found in faeces within 2-4 weeks—a period that takes up to 1-2 years if left untreated.
The low-cost, adaptable design was piloted in 2008/2009 in Kibera slums in Nairobi,
Kenya reaching over 20,000 people with positive results. (The Peepoo toilet will be
available in the third trimester of 2010. For more information on the ‘Peepoo’ visit
www. peepoople.com.
Ashley Leech is ARCHIVE’s Global Health Correspondent in East Africa. She is also a consultant with Christian Aid in Uganda.